DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

ALBERT  B.  FALL.  SECRETARY 

NATIONAL  PARK    SERVI 

STEPHEN  T.  MATHER,  DIRECTOR 


EYSERS  OF  THE 


ELLOWSTONE 

NATIONAL  PARK 


GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE 

Washington      :;;:;:      Nineteen  Twenty-one 


THE  NATIONAL  PARKS  AT  A  GLANCE. 

[Number,  19;  total  area,  10,8.59  square  miles.] 


National  parks  in 
order  of  creation. 


Location. 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


Distinctive  characteristics. 


Uot  Springs. 
1832 


Yellowstone. 
1872 


Sequoia. 


Yosemite — 

1890 


General  Grant. 
1890 


Mount  Rainier. 
1899 


Crater  Lake. 
1902 


Wind  Cave. . 
1903 


1'latt . 


SullysHill... 

1904 


Mesa  Verde.. 
1906 


Glacier. 


Ilocky  Mountain. 
1915 


Hawaii. 


Lassen  Volcanic. . 
1916 


Mount  MeKinley 
1917 


Grand  Canyon.. 
1919 


Middle  Arkansas. . . 


Northwestern     "Wyo- 
ming. 


Middle   eastern   Cali- 
fornia. 


Middle  eastern   Cali- 
fornia. 


Middle   eastern   Cali- 
fornia. 


West    central    Wash- 
ington. 


Southwestern  Oregon. 

South  Dakota 

Southern  Oklahoma... 


North  Dakota. 


Southwestern      ( 'olo- 
rado. 


Northwestern      Mon- 
tana. 


North    middle    Cc 
rado. 


Hawaii- 


Northern  California. . 


South  central  Alaska.. 


North  central  Ari- 
zona. 


taine  coast . 


Lafayette. . 
1919 


Zion...  ..    Southwestern  Utah . 


118 
124 

2,200 


The  Big  Tree  National  Park— 12,000  sequoia  I 
over  10  feet  in  diameter,  some  25  to  36  fei 


40  hot  springs  possessing  curative  properties- 
Many  hotels  and  boarding  houses — 20  bath- 
houses under  public  control. 

More  geysers  than  in  all  rest  of  world  together — 
Boiling  springs — Mud  volcanoes — Petrified  for 
ests — Grand  Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone,  re- 
markable for  gorgeous  coloring — Large  lakes — 
Many  large  streams  and  waterfalls— Vast  wil- 
derness, greatest  wild  bird  and  animal  preserve 
in  world— Exceptional  trout  fishing. 

i trees 

to" 36  feet  in 

diameter — Towering  mountain  ranges — Start- 
ling precipices — Cave  of  considerable  size. 

Valley  of  world-famed  beauty— Lofty  cliffs— Ro- 
mantic vistas — Many  waterfalls  of  extraor- 
dinary height— 3  groves  of  big  trees— High 
Sierra — Waterwheel  falls— Good  trout  fishing. 

Created  to  preserve  the  celebrated  General  Grant 
Tree,  35  feet  in  diameter — 6  miles  from  Sequoia 
National  Park. 

Largest  accessible  single  peak  glacier  system— 28 
glaciers,  some  of  large  size — 48  square  miles  of 
glacier,  50  to  500  feet  thick— Wonderful  sub- 
alpine  wild  flower  fields. 

Lake  of  extraordinary  blue  in  crater  of  extinct 
volcano— Sides  1,000  feet  high— Interesting  lava 
formations — Fine  fishing. 

Cavern  having  many  miles  o£  galleries  and  numer- 
ous chambers  containing  peculiar  formations. 

Many  sulphur  and  other  springs  possessing 
medicinal  value. 

Small  park  with  woods,  streams,  and  a  lake— Is 
an  important  wild-animal  preserve. 

Most  notable  and  best  preserved  prehistoric  clifl 
dwellings  in  United  States,  if  not  in  the  world. 

J lugged  mountain  region  of  unsurpassed  Alpine 
character — 250  glacier-fed  lakes  of  romantic 
beauty— CO  small  glaciers— Precipices  thou- 
sands of  feet  deej) — Almost  sensational  scenery 
of  marked  individuality— Fine  trout  fishing. 

Heart  of  the  Rockies— Snowy  range,  peaks  11,000 
to  14,2.10  feet  altitude — Remarkable  records  of 
glacial  period. 

Three  separate  areas— Kilauea  and  Mauna  Loa 
on  Hawaii;  Haleakala  on  Maui. 

Only  active  volcano  in  United  States  proper — 
Lassen  Peak  10,4(15  feet— Cinder  Cone  (1,879 
fret— Hot  springs— Mud  geysers. 

Highest  mountain  in  Xortli  America — Rises 
higher  above  surrounding  country  than  any 
other  mountain  in  the  world. 

The  greatest  example  of  erosion  and  the  most 
sublime  spectacle  in  the  world. 

The  group  of  granite  mountains  upon  Mount 
Desert  Island. 

Magnificent  gorge  (/ion  Canyon),  depth  from  800 
to  2.000  feet,  with  precipitous  walls— Of  great 
beautv  and  scenic  interest. 


GEYSERS  OF  THE  YELLOWSTONE 
NATIONAL  PARK. 


Bv  WAI/TKK  HARVKY 


GENERAI,   STATEMENT. 

The-  hot-water  fountains,  called  geysers,  are  natural  wonders  that  are 
of  general  as  well  as  scientific  interest.  The  striking  manifestation 
which  they  afford  of  the  earth's  internal  heat,  their  great  beauty,  and 
novel  surroundings  make  them  indeed  worthy  of  that  widespread  inter- 
est which  they  arouse,  and  it  is  in  the  hope  of  gratifying  a  general  curi- 
osity concerning  these  wonderful  fountains  that  the  present  paper  has 
been  written. 

At  the  outset  of  this  inquiry  into  the  nature  and  occurrence  of  these 
natural  steam  engines  it  is  necessary  to  exactly  define  what  is  a  geyser. 
Briefly,  a  geyser  is  a  hot  spring  which  intermittently  ejects  a  column  of 
boiling  water  and  steam.  Before  attempting  to  present  such  a  general 
account  of  the  various  geyser  regions  of  the  world  as  will  enable  the 
reader  to  follow  the  deductions  derived  from  a  study  of  the  occurrence 
and  the  characteristics  of  geysers,  it  may  be  well  to  present  a  summary 
of  the  paper. 

It  is  believed  that  the  facts  recorded  in  this  article  show: 

First.  That  geysers  occur  only  in  volcanic  regions  and  in  acid  volcanic 
rocks.  In  Iceland  and  New  Zealand  the  volcanic  fires  art-  still  active. 

Second.  Geysers  occur  only  along  lines  of  drainage,  on  shores  of  lakes 
or  other  situations  where  meteoric  waters  would  naturally  seek  the  surface. 

Third.  Geyser  waters  are  meteoric  waters  which  have  not  penetrated 
to  great  depths,  but  have  been  heated  bv  ascending  vapors. 

Fourth.  The  supply  of  heat  is  derived  from  great  masses  of  lava  slowly 
cooling  from  a  state  of  former  incandescence,  heating  waters,  which, 
descending  to  the  hot  rocks,  ascend  as  highly  heated  vapors. 

1  Ki-visecl  in  i^.-i  by  tin-  National  Park  Service. 


4  GEYSERS. 

Fifth.  The  intermittent  spouting  of  geysers  is  due  to  the  gradual  heating 
of  water  accumulated  in  fissures  or  tubes  in  the  rocks,  the  only  mecha- 
nism necessary  being  a  tube,  which  mayor  may  not  have  local  expansions 
or  chambers. 

Sixth.  Geysers  may  originate  in  several  ways,  though  most  commonly 
produced  by  the  opening  of  new  waterways  along  fissure  planes  of  the 
rocks,  by  a  gradual  eating  out  of  a  tube  by  ascending  hot  vapors. 

Seventh.  The  thermal  activity  of  geyser  regions  is  not  rapidly  dying 
out.  The  decrease  of  heat  is  very  slow,  and,  though  changes  take  place 
from  year  to  year,  the  establishment  of  new  geysers  and  new  hot  springs 
offsets  the  decay  or  drying  up  of  old  vents. 

Attempts  to  solve  the  mysterious  spouting  of  geysers  date  back  to 
the  earlier  part  of  the  present  epoch  of  scientific  research  and  the  genius 
of  Bunsen  and  Deseloiseaux  was  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  Iceland  geysers 
as  early  as  1847.  The  most  important  result  of  their  experiments  and 
observations  was  a  theory  of  geyser  action,  now  (with  slight  modifica- 
tions) generally  accepted,  but  other  conclusions  have  been  proven  by 
observations  made  in  the  Yellowstone  Park  to  be  erroneous.  Although 
numerous  visits  to  the  geysers  of  Iceland  by  later  observers  led  to  various 
ingenious  speculations  and  theories  respecting  geyser  eruptions,  the  ques- 
tions of  geyser  origin  and  the  significance  of  their  occurrence  and  other 
questions  of  broader  scope  were  not  touched  upon. 

In  looking  at  the  distribution  of  geysers  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
one  is  quickly  impressed  with  their  great  rarity.  Hot  springs  abound  in 
many  countries,  but  boiling  springs  are  characteristic  only  of  regions  of 
recent  (that  is,  geologically  recent)  volcanic  activity;  only  in  such 
regions  do  geysers  occur.  Until  late  in  the  last  century  Iceland  was  the 
only  land  where  geysers  had  been  found.  Less  than  60  years  ago  they 
were  discovered  in  considerable  numbers  in  New  Zealand,  and  since  then 
a  few  others  have  been  reported  from  other  parts  of  the  world.  The 
"Geyserland"  of  the  world  is  undoubtedly,  however,  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park,  a  region  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at 
the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone. 

In  order  to  bring  before  the  reader  a  general  idea  of  the  true  relation 
of  geyser  vents  to  the  surrounding  topography  and  watercourses  of  the 
distriets,  a  brief  description  of  the  great  geyser  regions  of  the  world 
will  be  attempted.  It  has  been  my  good  fortune  to  have  spent  seven 
summers  at  the  various  geyser  "basins"  of  the  Yellowstone  in  connection 
with  my  duties  as  assistant  geologist  on  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  party  under  Arnold  Hague.  The  other  regions  are  familiar  from 
a  large  series  of  excellent  photographs,  as  well  as  through  the  descriptions 
of  friends  and  the  writings  of  other  visitors  to  those  countries. 


NEW  CRATER  GEYSER,  NORRIS  BASIN. 

Photograph  by  F.  J.  Ilayncs. 


CONSTANT  GEYSER,  NORRIS  BASIN. 

Photograph  by  1*.  J.  Hayiu-s. 


6  GEYSERS. 

THE  ICELAND  GEYSERS. 

Iceland  is  the  birthplace  of  the  word  geyser.  It  has  been  called  the 
land  of  frost  and  fire,  and  indeed  in  no  place  are  the  evidences — nay,  the 
very  forces  themselves — of  frost  and  fire  brought  so  forcibly  in  contrast. 
The  island  is  eminently  a  volcanic  region,  a  central  table-land  with 
sharp  volcanic  peaks,  hooded  with  great  Jokuls,  or  glaciers,  mantled  with 
perpetual  snows,  and  surrounded  by  a  more  or  less  narrow  strip  of  low- 
land bordering  upon  the  sea.  The  evidences  of  internal  fire  are  unmis- 
takable. Hecla  and  other  volcanoes  are  occasionally  active,  and  the 
whole  island  is  covered  with  lava  poured  out  by  the  volcanoes,  and  the 
source  of  the  heat  supplying  the  geysers  is  unquestioned. 

As  would  naturally  be  expected  from  the  combination  of  water  and 
fire,  hot  springs  are  abundant  and  at  a  few  localities  geysers  are  found. 
The  most  noteworthy  of  these  is  Haukadal,  where  The  Geyser,  Strokr, 
and  a  smaller  geyser  are  found.  This  locality  is  about  70  miles  from 
Reykjavik,  the  Iceland  metropolis,  and  is  only  reached  on  horseback 
over  beds  of  clinkers  and  rough  lava  fields;  a  dreary  ride  so  far  as  scenery 
goes,  but  of  fresh  novelty  to  visitors  from  warmer  lands.  The  hot  springs 
are  clustered  in  an  area  of  about  20  acres,  at  the  base  of  a  hill  about  an 
eighth  of  a  mile  long  and  300  feet  high,  and  at  the  edge  of  the  marshy 
bottom  .that  stretches  out  toward  the  Hvita  River.  The  springs  are 
really  at  the  base  of  the  seaward  border  of  the  high  ground,  where  the 
waters  that  have  percolated  through  the  tufas  and  porous  lavas  of  the 
higher  region  would  come  to  the  surface.  The  two  geysers  Strokr  and 
The  Geyser  issue  from  mounds  of  gray  or  white  silica  deposited  by  the 
hot  waters,  and  the  neighboring  springs  are  surrounded  by  lesser  areas 
of  the  same  material,  while  on  the  hillside  back  of  the  springs  the  rock  is 
decomposed  by  the  steam  of  fumeroles.  These  two  large  spouters  show 
two  types  of  geysers.  Strokr  has  a  funnel-like  pit  36  feet  deep  and  8  feet 
across  (see  page  26),  expanding  into  a  saucer-like  basin.  The  tube  is 
generally  filled  to  within  6  feet  of  the  top  with  clear  water,  which  boils 
furiously,  owing  to  the  escape  of  great  bubbles  of  steam  coming  from  two 
openings  in  opposite  sides  of  the  tube.  The  eruptions  are  quite  as  beau- 
tiful as  those  of  its  more  famous  companion,  the  jets  rising  in  a  sheaf-like 
column  to  a  height  of  100  or  more  feet,  eruptions  taking  place  at  very 
irregular  and  long  intervals;  but  by  putting  a  lid  on  this  great  kettle,  by 
dumping  in  large  pieces  of  turf,  an  eruption  can  be  produced  in  a  short 
time. 

The  Geyser,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  pool  of  limpid  green  water  whose 
surface  rises  and  falls  in  rhythmic  pulsations.  The  usual  temperature 
is  but  170°  F.  or  200°  F.,  but  varies,  being  greater  immediately  before 
an  eruption.  The  shallow  saucer-like  basin  is  about  60  feet  across  and 
slopes  gently  to  a  cylindrical  shaft  10  feet  in  diameter,  forming  the 


FOUNTAIN  GKYSKR,  LOWER  BASIN. 

I'hotoKraph  by  F.  J.  Hay  lies. 


GKKAT  In n. \TAIX  GKYSKK.  I.mviCR 

I'huto^raph  by  F.  J.  HuyncM. 


8  GEYSERS. 

of  the  geyser;  this  is  about  70  feet  deep.  This  regularity  of  the  tube  be- 
comes important  when  we  consider  Bunsen's  experiments  and  the  theory 
of  geyser  action  he  deduced  from  them.  Before  an  eruption  bubbles 
of  steam  entering  the  tube  suddenly  collapse  with  loud  but  muffled 
reports  and  a  disturbance  of  the  quiet  surface  of  the  water.  During  this 
simmering,  for  such  it  is,  the  water  rises  in  dome-like  mounds  over  the 
pipe  and  overflows  the  basin,  running  down  the  terraced  slope  and  wet- 
ting the  cauliflower-like  forms  of  sinter  that  adorn  it. 

The  eruptions  that  so  long  puzzled  and  astonished  visitors  to  this 
remote  land  are  surpassed  by  those  of  the  giants  of  the  Yellowstone,  but 
their  beauty  is  not  less.  A  short  time  before  Geyser  plays,  the  domes  of 
water  rising  in  the  center  of  the  basin  come  in  quick  succession  and 
finally  burst  into  spray,  followed  by  a  rapid  succession  of  jets  increasing 
in  height  until  the  column  is  100  feet  high.  Dense  clouds  of  steam 
momentarily  hide  the  glistening  sheaf  of  jets,  hiding  it  from  sight,  then 
drifting  away  in  the  breeze  again  reveal  the  sparkling  shaft. 

These  eruptions  have  varied  much  in  appearance  and  height  since  the 
geyser  was  first  known.  At  present  the  column  does  not  exceed  90  feet 
and  the  eruption  lasts  but  a  few  moments.  After  it  the  basin  is  empty 
and  seems  to  be  lined  with  a  smooth  coating  of  white  silica. 

THIv  GKYSKRS  OF  NKW  ZEALAND. 

The  geysers  of  New  Zealand  are  situated  in  a  region  clothed  with  a 
luxuriant  vegetation  that  is  in  strong  contrast  to  the  bleak  and  barren 
lava  fields  of  Iceland,  but  an  examination  of  the  position  of  the  springs, 
with  respect  to  the  physical  features  of  the  region,  shows  that  the  situa- 
tion of  the  geysers  is  nearly  the  same  in  these  antipodal  isles.  The  Xe\v 
Zealand  geysers  occur  in  the  North  Island,  in  what  is  known  as  the 
volcanic  region,  or  the  Taupo  zone.  \Yithin  an  area  of  4,725  square  miles, 
in  which  none  but  volcanic  rocks  are  found,  there  are  six  volcanoes  and 
great  numbers  of  solfataras,  fumeroles,  mud  volcanoes  and  hot  springs, 
"and  many  geysers.  The  lavas  are  all  of  the  acid  type,  mostly  rhyolite, 
but  are  hidden  by  surface  decomposition  and  an  abundant  vegetation, 
save  upon  the  flanks  of  the  peaks.  The  axial  line  of  this  zone  running 
northeast  is  marked  at  each  end  by  an  active  volcano  and  its  course  by 
a  line  of  greatest  hydrothermal  activity,  a  sinuous  line  of  hot  springs 
following  well-marked  geographic  features  of  river  valleys,  low  plains, 
and  lake  margins,  with  higher  country  on  either  side  rising  to  plateaus  of 
2, (xx)  to  3,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Little  is  known  of  the  geysers  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Taupo  or  those 
on  the  banks  of  the  Waikato  River,  but  the  famous  terraces  of  Rotonui- 
hana,  called  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world  by  James  Anthony  Fronde, 
attracted  attention  to  the  geysers  which  formed  them,  and  made  their 


GROTTO  GEYSER,  UPPER  HASIX. 

Photograph  liy  I'.  J.  Hayncs. 


RIVERSIDE  GEYSER,  UPPER  I.ASIX. 

Photograph  by  F.  T.  Hayncs. 


TO  GEYSERS. 

vicinity  the  best-known  part  of  the  district.  The  warm  lake  called 
Rotomahana  by  the  Maoris  was  a  shallow  body  of  warm  water  about  a 
mile  long  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  comprising  185  acres.  The 
waters  were  of  a  dirty  greenish  hue,  reflecting  the  somber  green  of  the 
fern  and  the  ti-tree-covered  slopes  about  it,  and  the  sedgy  margins  shel- 
tered large  numbers  of  duck  and  other  water  fowl.  Rising  above  its  sur- 
face like  stairways  of  delicately  sculptured  marble  were  the  pink  and 
white  terraces.  At  the  top  of  the  terrace,  120  feet  above  the  lake,  was 
the  Terata  Geyser,  whose  overflow  had  built  up  this  wonderful  work  and 
filled  the  basins  and  pools  with  waters  whose  tints  were  both  the  delight 
of  the  eye  and  the  despair  of  the  pen. 

The  geyser  caldron  was  some  60  by  80  feet  across,  its  clear  and  boiling 
water  usually  overflowing  and  occasionally  ejected  to  a  height  of  40  to 
100  feet,  wetting  the  steep  banks  of  bright-colored  fumerole  clays  about 
the  crater  but  not  forming  the  beaded  geyserite  characteristic  of  so 
many  of  these  fountains.  Such  eruptions  followed  a  period  of  quiescence, 
when  the  waters  retired  within  the  pipe  for  many  hours.  Owing  to  the 
comparative  inaccessibility  of  the  caldron  and  the  beauty  of  the  terraces, 
but  few  observations  are  on  record  of  the  action  of  the  geyser.  The 
water  carried  150  grains  of  solid  matter  to  the  gallon,  of  which  one-third 
was  silica,  and  the  daily  outflow  of  100,000  to  600,000  gallons  per  hour 
brought  up  10  tons  of  solid  matter  dissolved  out  of  the  underlying  rocks. 
It  is  easy  to  see  what  great  underground  caverns  would  be  formed  by  this 
geyser  alone  in  a  comparatively  brief  time.  In  the  volcanic  outbreak  of 
Tarawera,  in  June,  1886,  the  waters  of  the  lake  and  underground  reser- 
voirs were  drawn  into  the  newly  opened  fissure,  and,  by  the  extraordinary 
explosion  that  followed,  the  terraces  were  destroyed  and  the  site  of 
Rotomahara  became  a  crater  that  threw  mud  over  the  surrounding 
country. 

THIS  YKLLOWSTONK  "GKYSKRLAND." 

The  wonderful  variety,  the  great  number,  and  the  large  size  of  the 
•  geysers  of  America,  found  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  demand  a 
somewhat  longer  account  of  this  region.  The  geysers  are  found  in  de- 
tached groups,  occupying  basins  or  valleys  of  the  great  table-land  which 
forms  the  central  portion  of  the  park,  a  region  whose  heavy  forests  and 
uninviting  aspect,  combined  with  the  rugged  nature  of  the  encircling 
mountain  ranges,  so  long  proved  a  barrier  to  exploration,  even  to  those 
adventurous  trappers  and  prospectors  of  the  Great  West. 

The  geyser  "basins,"  as  the  localities  are  termed,  conform,  in  their 
relations  to  the  surrounding  high  ground  and  their  coincidence  with  lines 
of  drainage  and  the  loci  of  springs,  to  the  laws  governing  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  same  phenomena  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  park  itself 
is  a  reservation  of  about  3,500  square  miles,  the  central  portion  being  an 


12 


GEYSERS. 


elevated  volcanic  plateau,  accentuated  by  deep  and  narrow  canyons  and 
broad,  gentle  eminences  and  surrounded  by  high  and  rugged  mountain 


vSKIvTCH    MAP    OK   NORRIS   GKYSICR    B.\SIX. 

ranges.  This  central  portion,  whose  average  elevation  is  about  S.ooo 
leet  above  the  sea,  embraces  all  the  hot-spring  and  geyser  areas  of  the 
park.  The  volcanic  activity  that  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  park 


SPOXGIJ  GRYSIJR,  UPPER  HASIX. 

Photograph  by  F.  J.  Hayncs. 


14  GEYSERS. 

plateau  may  be  considered  as  extinct,  nor  are  there  any  evidences  of 
fresh  lava  flows.  Yet  the  hot  springs  so  widely  distributed  over  the 
plateau  are  convincing  evidence  of  the  presence  of  underground  heat. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  waters  derive  their  high  temperature  from 
the  heated  rocks  below,  and  that  the  origin  of  the  heat  is  in  some  way 
associated  with  the  source  of  volcanic  energy. 


SKETCH  MAP  OF  LOWER  GEYSER  BASIN. 

The  various  geyser  basins,  or  "fire  holes,"  as  they  were  called  by  the 
.first  explorers,  each  possess  individual  peculiarities  which  give  character 
and  interest  to  each  locality.  The  most  noted  of  these  basins  is,  how- 
ever, that  known  as  the  Upper  Geyser  Basin  of  the  Firehole  River, 
one  of  the  headwaters  of  the  great  Missouri.  The  Upper  Basin,  as  it  is 
generally  called,  lies  a  little  westward  of  the  center  of  the  park.  It  is  a 
valley  iJ2  miles  long  by  one-half  mile  broad,  inclosed  by  the  rocky  cliffs 
or  darkly  wooded  slopes  of  the  great  Madison  Plateau  and  drained  by 
the  Firehole  River,  along  whose  banks  the  largest  geysers  are  situated, 
The  whole  floor  of  the  valley  is  fairly  riddled  with  springs  of  boiling  water, 
whose  exquisite  beauty  is  indescribable.  Light  clouds  of  fleecy  vapor 
curl  gently  upward  from  waters  of  the  purest  azure  or  the  clearest  of 
enu-rald,  and,  encircling  rims  of  white  marblelike  silica,  form  fit  setting 
for  such  great  gems.  A  large  part  of  the  valley  floor  is  covered  with  the 


GEYSERS. 


white  deposit  of  silica  known  as  siliceous  sinter,  deposited  by  the  over- 
flowing hot  waters.1     The  \veird  whiteness  of  these  areas,  the  gaunt  white 


SKKTCJI 


trunks  of  pine  trees  killed  by  the-  hot  waters,  tin-  myriad  pools  of  steam- 
ing crystal,  and  the  white  clouds  lloating  off  from  the  chimney-like  geyser 


i6 


GEYSERS. 


cones,  form  a  scene  never  to  be  forgotten  by  those  fortunate  enough  to 
behold  it.  Within  this  basin  there  are  nearly  30  geysers,  presenting 
many  variations  of  bowl  or  basin,  mound  and  cone,  and  whose  eruptions 
are  equally  diversified  in  form  and  beauty. 

Sentinel,  Fan,  Riverside,  Mortar,  and  Grotto  greet  one  on  entering 
the  basin  either  by  quiet  steaming  or  by  flashing  jets.  Giant,  Splendid, 
Castle,  Grand,  Giantess,  Lion,  and  Old  Faithful  are  but  a  few  of  the 
wondrous  fountains  of  the  place.  The  last  is  most  deserving  of  its 


KXCELSIOR  GEYSER.' 

Photograph  by  K.  J.  Haynes. 

name.  Kver  since  its  discovery,  in  1870,  it  has  not  failed  to  send  up  a 
graceful  shower  of  jets  at  average  intervals  of  60  to  75  minutes.  Its 
beauty  is  ever  varying,  as  wind  and  sunlight  play  upon  it,  and  the 
mound  about  its  vent  is  adorned  with  delicately  tinted  basins  of  salmon, 
pink  and  yellow,  filled  with  limpid  water  whose  softness  is  enticing.  It 
is  the  geyser  of  the  park,  and  indeed  of  the  world,  and  many  a  visitor 
to  ''  gcyserland  "  departs  without  seeing  any  other  of  the  many  spouters 
in  action  and  yet  feels  more  than  repaid  for  the  journey.  For  beauty  of 
surroundings  the  Castle  will  perhaps  be  awarded  the  palm;  its  sinter 
chimney  or  cone  is  formed  of  exquisite  cauliflower  or  coral-like  geyserite, 
whose  general  form  makes  the  geyser's  name  appropriate.  Its  eruptions 
are  now  irregular.  A  stream  of  hot  water  is  thrown  up  to  a  height 


'Ceased  playiiu;  in  iSSS, 


GEYSERS. 


between  50  and  75  feet  for  about  30  minutes,  followed  by  the  emission 
of  steam,  with  a  loud  roar  that  can  be  heard  for  miles. 

The  greatest  geyser  of  the  park,  and  indeed  the  grandest  of  the  whole 
world,  was  Excelsior,  some  25  miles  beyond  the  Norris  Basin.  Unlike  the 
less  capricious  and  more  fountain-like  geysers  of  the  Upper  Firehole,  this 
monster  of  geysers  did  not  spout  from  a  fissure  in  the  rock,  nor  from  a 
crater  or  cone  of  its  own  building.  It  was  a  monster  of  destruction,  hav- 
ing torn  out  its  great  crater  in  the  old  sinter-covered  slope,  builded  by  the 
placid  and  beauteous  Prismatic  Lake.  The  walls,  formed  by  the  jagged 
ends  of  the  white  sinter  layers,  were  lashed  by  the  angry  waters  that  were 
ever  undermining  the  sides  and  enlarging  the  caldron.  The  eruptions 
were  so  stupendous  that  all  other  geysers  are  dwarfed  by  comparison. 
The  grand  outburst  was  preceded  by  several  abortive  attempts,  when 
great  domes  of  water  rose  in  the  center  and  burst  into  splashing  masses 
10  to  15  feet  high,  while  the  waters  surged  under  the  overhanging  walls 
and  overflowed  the  slope  between  the  crater  and  the  river.  Finally,  with 
a  grand  boom  or  report  that  shook  the  ground,  an  immense  fan-shaped 
mass  of  water  was  thrown  up  to  a  height  of  200  or  more  feet,  great  clouds 
of  steam  rolled  off  from  the  boiling  water,  while  large  blocks  of  the  white 
sinter  were  flung  far  above  the  water  and  fell  about  the  neighboring 
slopes.  Unfortunately,  this  monarch  of  all  geysers  has  ceased  to  erupt. 

Everywhere,  save  at  the  Norris  Basin  of  the  Yellowstone  Park,  geyser 
vents  are  surrounded  by  cones,  mounds,  or  platforms  of  white  siliceous 
sinter,  which,  though  built  up  into  very  beautiful  forms,  hides  the  true 
relation  of  the  geyser  vent  to  the  fissures  in  the  rocks,  so  that  it  has  been 
generally  believed,  as  stated  by  Tyndall,1  that  the  hot  springs  built  up 
tubes  of  siliceous  rock,  that  made  them  geysers.  That  this  is  not  true 
is  shown  by  several  great  fountains  at  the  Xorris  Basin,  that  spout 
directly  from  fissures  in  the  solid  rock,  notably  the  Monarch,  Tippecanoe, 
and  Alcove  geysers. 

Prominent  geysers  and  springs,  based  upon  observations  during  season  1920. 
XORRIS    BASIX. 


Height  of    I)urat;ouo(  eruption.          Interval  between 
eruption.  eruptions. 


Remarks. 


Black  Growler 

Feet. 

....    Steam  vent  only. 

Coi  stunt  

15-35 

5  to  15  seconds  

20  to  55  seconds  .  . 

....     Quiescent  in  1920. 
...     Large  boiling  spring. 

1C  i    'raid  Pool 

.    .  .    Beautiful  hot  spring. 

6-8 

....    Continuous. 

M  nuti*  Man  

8-15 

15  to  ,30  seconds  

i  to  3  minutes.  .  .  . 

....    Sometimes  quiet  for  lonj 
periods. 

6-Js 

i  to  5  minutes.  .  .  . 

60 

\V1  irligi^ 

do                ..    . 

Xear  Constant  Geyser. 

i8 


GEYSERS. 


Prominent  geysers  and  springs,  based  upon  observations  during  sea-on  1920 — Continued. 

LOWER    BASIN. 


Name. 

Height  of 
eruption. 

Duration  of  eruption. 

Interval  between 
eruptions. 

Remarks. 

Black  Warrior  

Feet. 

Continuous  

}  Small,     but     interesting 

White  Dome  

i  minute  

40  to  60  minutes  

Clepsytra  

Few  seconds  

3  minutes  

10  minutes     

2  hours  . 

Firehole  Lake  

Peculiar  phenomena 

Great  Fountain  

75-150 

45  to  60  minutes  

8  to  1  2  hours  

Spouts  4  or  5  times. 

Excelsior  .          

About  ?.  hour  

Ceased  playing  in  1888. 

Prismatic  Lake  .  .  . 

Size  about  2  so  by  400  feet: 

remarkable  coloring. 

Turquoise  Spring . . . .  I About  100  feet  in  diame- 
ter. 


UPPER    BASIN. 

Artemisia  

50 

2 
2OO 

10  to  15  minutes  

24  to  30  hours 

Varies. 

Quiet  again. 

\Short  chimneys  to  Lion 
/    and  Lioness. 

Seldom  in  eruption. 

Usually  2  to  17  times  a 
day. 
Played  once  in  1910,  once 
in  1912,  once  early  in 
1914,  and  once  in  1920. 

Usual   interval    70   min- 
utes. 
Very  regular. 
Usually   5  to   8   times  a 
day. 
Usually   i   to  4  times  a 
day. 
Not  played  since  1892. 
A     small     but     perfect 
geyser. 

Beehive              

6  to  8  minutes  

3  to  5  times  at  T  2-hour 
intervals     following 
Giantess. 

Cascade 

Castle  co-7c      20  minutes 

Cub  large  

60 
IO-3O 

8  minutes  ...         .... 

With  Lioness  
i  to  2  hours             

Cub,  small  

1  7  minutes  

Daisy    

7O 
2O 

3  minutes 

Economic  

Few  seconds  .... 

Fan 

Giant           .      .               i     200-250 

60  minutes 

Giantess  i  ,0-200 

12  to  36  hours 

Irregular,  5  to  10  days. 

Grand                                        200 

Grotto  20-30 

Lion   . 

50-60 
80-100 

30 

About  2  to  4  minutes 
About  10  minutes 

Lioness 

do 

Mortar  

4  to  6  minutes          .      .       do      

Oblong  .... 

7  minutes  .      8  to  i  s  hours        

Old  Faithful 

Riverside    80-100 

1  5  minutes 

6  to  7  hours 

Sawmill  
Spasmodic 

20-35 
4 

2OO 

i  to  3  hours  

Irregular  
do 

Splendid  

10  minutes                                                 

Si>onge 

i  minute.  .  .                      i  minutes     . 

Turban  20-40      10  minutes  to  3  hours     Irregular  

Notable  springs. — Black  Sand  Springs  (about  55  by  60  feet),  Chinaman,  Emerald 
Pool,  Morning  Glory,  Punch  Bowl,  Sponge,  Sunset  Lake. 

GEYSER  WATERS. 

The  descriptions  which  have  been  given  of  the  chief  geyser  regions 
of  the  world  lead  to  the  question,  What  is  the  source  and  character  of 
the  geyser  waters?  It  has  been  plainly  indicated  that  in  the  fields 
described  the  vents  are  always  situated  along  lines  of  drainage,  on  the 
shores  of  lakes,  or  under  conditions  where  ordinary  springs  of  meteoric 
water  would  naturally  occur. 

That  the  geyser  waters  are  surface  waters  which  have  percolated 
through  the  porous  lavas  and  have  been  heated  by  encountering  great 


BLACK  GROWLER,  NORRIS  BASIX.' 

Photograph  by  F.  J.  Haynes. 


20  GEYSERS. 

quantities  of  steam  and  gases  rising  from  the  hot  rocks  below  there  is  no 
reasonable  doubt.  The  proximity  of  ordinary  cold  springs  and  those  of 
boiling  hot  water  lends  support  to  this  view. 

These  hot  waters,  traversing  the  rocks  in  irregular  fissures,  readily 
dissolve  out  the  more  soluble  constituents  of  the  rocks,  the  amount  and 
the  character  of  the  salts  present  varying  somewhat  with  the  nature 
and  amount  of  gases  held  in  the  waters.  Chemical  analyses  of  geyser 
waters  from  the  three  regions  described  show  no  greater  variation  than 
those  from  different  vents  in  any  one  of  these  regions. 

Source  of  heat. — That  the  source  of  steam  is  the  still  hot  lavas  below, 
and  is  in  some  way  connected  with  volcanic  action,  is  so  evident  from 
the  facts  that  no  other  conclusion  is  possible.  A  very  common  belief 
concerning  the  source  of  the  heat  of  boiling  springs  and  geyers,  but 
one  which  no  longer  has  the  support  of  scientific  men,  is  that  the  heat 
results  from  chemical  action,  as  it  is  vaguely  termed.  Were  not  the 
evidence  so  directly  opposed  to  this  idea,  it  would  merit  consideration, 
but  so  far  as  the  heat  of  geyser  waters  is  concerned  all  observation  shows 
it  to  be  untenable.  To  this  class  of  theories  belongs  the  popular  idea 
that  the  geyser  basins  are  underlain  by  great  beds  of  (quick?)  lime, 
which  supply  the  heat  and  steam  of  the  geysers. 

The  smothered  combustion  of  beds  of  lignite,  coal,  or  pyrites  is 
another  form  of  the  same  theory  that  has  been  received  with  considerable 
favor  and  still  commands  a  few  followers.  That  hot  springs  may  have 
such  an  origin  is  not  denied,  but  the  geological  conditions  and  environ- 
ment clearly  show  that  none  of  the  great  geyser  regions  of  the  world 
derive  their  heat  from  such  action. 

Where  the  source  of  supply  is  deep-seated,  spring  waters  always  have 
an  elevated  temperature,  generally  proportionate  to  the  depth,  but  the 
very  high  temperatures  of  the  geysers  and  the  local  source  of  the  waters 
exclude  this  theory.  The  folding  and  faulting  of  rocks  is  another  source 
of  heat  made  manifest  by  hot  springs. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Peale,  however,  that  boiling  waters  are  only 
found  in  the  regions  of  volcanic  rocks,  and  it  was  pointed  out  by  L'Ap- 
parent  that  geysers  only  occur  in  acid  volcanic  lavas.  In  Iceland  the 
volcanic  forces  are  still  active,  and  melted  lavas  may  exist  at  no  great 
depth.  In  Xe\v  Zealand  the  recent  eruption  of  the  eroded  mountain 
Tarawera  showed  that  heated  rocks  exist  and  in  that  case  rose  up  near 
enough  to  the  surface  to  cause  the  explosion  which  so  transformed  the 
country. 

In  the  Yellowstone  there  are  no  active  volcanoes,  and  none  of  even 
geologically  recent  activity.  The  lavas  that  fill  the  ancient  mountain- 
encircled  basin  of  the  park  are  scored  by  glaciers  and  deeply  cut  by 
running  water,  and  the  old  volcanoes  from  which  the  lavas  were,  in  part 
at  least,  outpoured  show  no  signs  of  having  been  active  since  Tertiary 
times.  Vet  in  this  region  the  expenditure  of  heat  by  the  hot  springs, 


I! 


o  ..• 


22  GEYSERS. 

geysers,  and  steam  vents  would  undoubtedly  keep  a  moderate-sized 
volcano  in  a  very  active  state  were  it  concentrated.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  this  heat  is  connected  with  the  past  volcanic  energies  of  the  region 
and  derived  principally  from  the  still  hot  lavas,  three-quarters  of  the 
entire  area  of  the  park  (3,500  square  miles)  being  covered  by  rhyolitic 
rocks. 

The  significance  alluded  to  above,  of  the  association  of  geysers  and 
acid  lavas  (rhyolites),  is  possibly  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  these  rocks 
are  more  easily  dissolved  by  the  hot  waters  forming  the  tubes  and  reser- 
voirs for  geysers.  The  situation  of  hot  springs  and  geysers  along  water- 
courses has  already  been  mentioned.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the 
presence  of  water  in  the  pores  of  a  rock  increases  its  capacity  to  conduct 
heat,  so  that  we  may  surmise  a  rise  in  the  local  isogeotherm  in  such 
situations. 

Geyser  eruptions. — Geysers  have  often  been  compared  to  volcanoes, 
presenting  in  miniature,  with  water  instead  of  molten  rock,  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  a  volcanic  eruption.  The  diversity  of  form  and  varying  con- 
ditions of  activity  of  the  hot  springs  found  associated  with  geysers  makes 
it  impossible  to  determine  in  every  case  whether  a  spring  is  or  is  not  a 
geyser.  Geyser  vents  may  be  mere  rifts  in  the  naked  rocks  or  bowls  of 
clear  and  tranquil  water,  quiet  until  disturbed  by  the  first  throes  of  an 
eruption,  and  surrounded  by  white  sinter  deposits  in  nowise  distin- 
guishable from  those  about  hot  springs.  In  other  cases  the  vents  are 
surrounded  by  a  cone  or  mound  of  pearly  beaded  "geyserite,"  a  certain 
and  distinctive  feature  of  a  geyser. 

The  displays  of  the  great  "Geyser"  of  Iceland  have  already  been 
briefly  described;  they  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  eruptions  from  gey- 
sers having  bowl-like  expansions  at  the  top  of  the  tube,  the  so-called 
"basin"  of  the  geyser.  Where  the  vent  is  surrounded  by  a  cone  of 
sinter,  as  is  so  often  the  ease  among  the  fountains  of  New  Zealand  and 
the  Yellowstone,  the  first  part  of  the  geyser  eruption  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent. Perhaps  the  most  familiar  geyser  of  this  type  is  Old  Faithful,  the 
"one  geyser  in  the  Yellowstone  that  is  sure  not  to  disappoint  the  visitor. 
Though  surpassed  by  many  of  its  neighbors  in  the  height  and  magnitude 
of  its  eruptions,  it  holds  a  front  rank  for  beauty  and  gracefulness.  Pre- 
viously heralded  by  loud  rumblings,  with  spasmodic  outbursts  of  10  to 
20  feet  in  height  that  mark  abortive  attempts  to  send  up  its  steaming 
pillar,  the  white  column  is  finally  thrown  upward  with  a  loud  roar,  and 
mounts  at  once  to  a  height  that  seems  hundreds  of  feet  as  we  gaze  upon 
it.  For  one  or  even  two  minutes  the  column  maintains  a  height  which 
measurements  show  to  vary  from  90  feet  up  to  150  feet,  with  occa- 
sional steeple-shaped  jets  rising  still  higher,  the  jets  ever  varying  and 
giving  off  great  rolling  clouds  of  steam;  then  the  jets  gradually  decrease 
in  altitude,  and  in  five  minutes  the  eruption  is  over,  the  tube  apparently 
empty,  and  emitting  occasional  puffs  of  steam  for  a  few  minutes  longer. 


24  GEYSERS. 

During  the  eruption  the  water  falls  in  heavy  masses  about  the  vent, 
filling  the  basins  that  adorn  the  mound,  and  flowing  off  in  yellow  and 
orange-colored  waterways,  while  the  finer  spray  drifts  off  with  the  breeze 
and  falls  upon  the  neighboring  sinter  slopes.  It  is  impossible  to  measure 
the  amount  of  water  thrown  out,  since  it  runs  off  in  a  number  of  directions 
in  shallow  rills  that  lead  either  to  the  sandy  terrace  near  by  or  to  the 
river.  If,  however,  we  assume  that  the  column  of  steam  and  water  is 
one-third  water,  a  fair  assumption,  the  estimated  discharge  is  200,000 
gallons  at  each  eruption. 

Comparing  Old  Faithful  with  its  Iceland  prototype  we  find  considerable 
difference  in  the  behavior  of  the  two  vents  during  the  interval  between 
eruptions.  The  former,  like  Strokr,  has  no  bowl  or  basin,  and  the  geyser 
throat  or  tube  is  partly  filled  with  water,  which  is  in  constant  and  ener- 
getic ebullition  while  the  geyser  is  inactive.  The  tube  and  bowl  of 
"Geyser"  are,  on  the  contrary,  filled  with  comparatively  cool  water.  In 
each  case,  however,  the  eruption  is  preceded  by  an  overflow  from  the 
geyser  tube,  in  the  case  of  Strokr  and  Old  Faithful  as  jets  of  10  feet  to 

25  feet  in  height;  in  "Geyser"  by  a  filling  of  the  bowl  and  successive 
overflows,  accompanied  by  the  noise  of  condensing  steam  bubbles,  a  sim- 
mering of  the  water  in  the  tube.     Such  preliminary  actions  are  significant 
when  we  consider  the  theory  of  geyser  action. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  the  numerous  other  theories  of  geyser 
action;  they  all  suppose  caverns  or  systems  of  chambers  and  tubes,  of 
definite  arrangement,  a  supposition  most  unlikely  to  occur  in  many  cases, 
and  made  unnecessary  by  Bunsen's  theory.  Local  expansions  and  irregu- 
larities of  the  tube  do  exist,  and  to  them  we  owe  many  of  the  individual 
peculiarities  of  geysers,  but  such  chambers  do  not  form  a  vital,  essential 
part  of  the  geyser  mechanism. 

In  an  excellent  resume  of  the  various  theories  of  geyser  action,  Dr. 
A.  C.  Peale  states  that  he  believes  no  one  theory  is  adequate  to  explain 
all  the  phenomena  of  geyser  action,  though  Bunsen's  theory  comes 
nearest  to  it.1 

Where  the  tube  is  surrounded  at  the  top  by  a  basin  no  actual  overflow 
need  occur.  Indeed  there  is  in  the  Yellowstone  a  miniature  geyser, 
aptly  named  the  Model,  with  a  tube  but  2  inches  in  diameter,  surrounded 
by  a  shallow,  saucerlike  basin,  which  has  eruptions  about  every  15 
minutes  of  3  feet  to  5  feet  in  height  in  which  scarcely  a  drop  of  water 
is  wasted,  but  flows  back  into  the  tube  after  the  eruption.  During  the 
interval  between  eruptions  no  water  can  be  seen  in  the  tube,  whose  basin 
and  upper  part  are  dry  and  cool.  The  first  signal  of  the  coming  display 
is  a  quiet  welling  up  of  the  water  in  the  tube  filling  the  little  basin,  which 
being  relatively  large  and  shallow  relieves  the  water  column  of  a  consid- 
erable height.  During  the  eruption  which  follows,  the  spray  is  chilled 
by  the  air,  falling  back  into  the  basin;  at  the  end  of  the  display  the  water 
is  quickly  sucked  back  into  the  tube  and  reheated  for  the  ensuing  eruption. 


1  Twelfth  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  ('.col.  and  C.co«.  Survey  Territories,  vol.  n.,  p.  422. 


GEYSERS.  25 

At  first  thought  the  constant  boiling  of  the  waters  in  the  tube  of 
Strokr,  Old  Faithful,  and  many  other  geysers  seems  to  oppose  the  theory 
which  we  have  just  given.  Observations  show  however  that  in  many 
cases  the  boiling  is  confined  to  the  surface  and  deep  temperatures  do  not 
reach  the  boiling  point  corresponding  to  the  depth.  It  is  quite  likely 
also  that  in  some  cases  a  lesser  and  independent  supply  of  heat  may 
connect  with  the  upper  part  of  a  geyser  tube;  vStrokr,  we  know,  has  two 
vents  (see  figure),  one  of  which  is  the  geyser  tube,  the  funnellike  throat 
of  vStrokr  being  really  but  a  nozzle  to  the  geyser. 

Theories  of  geyser  action. — The  intermittent  spouting  of  geysers  was 
long  a  riddle  to  scientific  men,  for  although  several  theories  seemed  each 


Obscrccd  Tcmj}. 


Strokr 


Geyser 

SRCTIOXS  (iv  GICYSKR  AXD  STROKR  SIIOWIXG  FISSTRKS  Sri'iM.Yixc;  GKYSRR  TTBRS 

(AFTER  CAMPBRU,). 

to  offer  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  eruptions  of  "Geyser,"  they 
supposed  conditions  unlikely  to  occur  in  many  vents.  The  investiga- 
tions of  Bunsen,  and  of  Descloizeaux,  who  spent  two  weeks  studying  the 
Iceland  fountains,  resulted  in  the  announcement  of  a  theory  of  geyser 
action  which,  with  slight  modifications,  has  satisfied  all  requirements 
and  is  to-day  generally  accepted  as  the  true1  explanation  of  the  action  of 
these  natural  steam  engines.  This  theory,  which  bears  the  name  of  the 
illustrious  Bunsen,  depends  upon  the  well-known  fact  that  the  boiling 
point  of  water  rises  with  the  pressure,  and  is  therefore  higher  at  the 
bottom  of  a  tube  of  water  than  at  the  surface.'.  The  temperature  of  water 
heated  in  any  vessel  is  generally  equalized  by  convcctive  currents,  but 
in  a  long  and  narrow  or  an  irregular  tube  this  circulation  is  'mpeded,  and 
while  the  water  at  the  surface  boils  at  100°  C.  (at  sea  level),  ebullition  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  tube  is  only  possible  at  a  much  higher  temperature, 


26  GEYSERS. 

owing  to  the  weight  of  the  water  column  above  it.  In  the  section  of 
Geyser  shown  in  the  figure  the  observed  temperatures  are  given  on  the 
left,  and  the  temperatures  at  which  the  waters  would  boil,  taking  into 
account  the  pressure  of  the  water  column,  are  given  on  the  right.  In 
Geyser  the  nearest  approach  to  the  boiling  point  is  at  a  depth  of  45 
feet  opposite  a  ledge  and  fissure  discovered  subsequent  to  Bunsen's  ex- 
periments. At  this  depth  the  temperature  is  2°  C.  below  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  water  can  boil.  If  by  the  continued  heating  of  this 
layer  by  steam  from  the  fissure  it  attains  the  temperature  at  which  it  can 
boil,  steam  is  formed,  whose  expansive  force  lifts  the  superincumbent 
column  of  water,  causing  a  slight  overflow  at  the  top,  which,  shortening 
the  column,  brings  the  layer  B  to  the  position  C,  where  its  temperature  is 
above  the  boiling  point  of  C,  wherefore  steam  is  formed  at  this  point  and 
a  further  lifting  and  relief  of  pressure  ensues,  followed  by  an  eruption. 

In  illustration  of  this  theory  a  model  geyser  is  easily  constructed  of 
a  glass  tube  an  inch  or  so  in  diameter  and  several  feet  long.  When 
this  tube  is  closed  at  one  end,  filled  with  water  and  placed  upright  we 
have  all  the  mechanism  necessary  to  produce  all  the  phenomena  of  a 
geyser.  By  heating  the  water  at  the  bottom  by  the  introduction  of 
steam  (or  with  a  spirit  lamp),  we  can  produce  eruptions  whose  period 
will  depend  upon  the  intensity  of  the  heat.  At  first  the  bubbles  of  steam 
collapse  in  the  cool  waters  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  but  as  the  tem- 
perature rises  the  bubbles  rise  part  way  up  the  tube  and  heat  the  lower 
part  of  the  column  to  a  high  temperature  while  the  water  near  the  sur- 
face is  still  cool.  Eventually  the  water  at  the  bottom  reaches  the  pres- 
sure boiling  point,  when  steam  is  formed,  lifting  the  water  above  ;.t  and 
causing  an  overflow  at  the  top.  This  overflow  or  its  equivalent,  the 
filling  of  a  shallow  basin  at  the  top  of  the  tube  relieves  the  pressure  and 
all  that  part  of  the  column  whose  temperature  was  previously  below  the 
boiling  point  but  now  exceeds  it,  flies  into  steam  and  ejects  the  water 
above  with  great  violence.  The  glass  walls  of  our  geyser  tube  permit  us 
to  watcli  the  gradual  heating  of  the  water  by  means  of  thermometers 
suspended  in  the  tube,  the  ascent  and  collapse  of  steam  bubbles,  the 
overflow  and  abortive  attempts  to  erupt  and  the  final  ejection  of  the 
water  from  the  tube. 

I  believe,  however,  that  Bunsen's  theory  is  a  perfect  explanation  if 
we  but  admit  that  the  geyser  tube  may  be  neither  straight  nor  regular, 
but  of  any  shape  or  size,  and  probably  differing  very  much  for  each 
vent.  The  shape  of  the  bowl  or  basin  exercises  but  little  influence  upon 
the  eruption  save  to  produce  the  many  individual  peculiarities  of  the 
geyser  column. 

Oriyin  of  geysers. — It  should  be  noted  that  Bunsen's  theory  of  geyser 
action  is  quite  independent  of  his  theory  of  geyser  formation.  The 
building  up  of  a  siliceous  tube  by  the  evaporation  of  the  waters  at  the 
margin  of  a  hot  spring  is  a  process  which  may  be  seen  in  operation  in 
any  of  the  geyser  regions  of  the  world;  but  it  is  not  a  necessary  pre 


GEYSERS.  27 

lude  to  the  formation  of  a  geyser,  for  a  simple  fissure  in  the  rock 
answers  equally  well,  as  is  shown  at  the  Norris  geyser  basin  in  the 
Yellowstone  Park. 

The  life  history  of  a  geyser  varies,  of  course,  for  each  one,  but  obser- 
vations show  that  the  following  sequence  of  events  often  takes  place. 
The  hot  vapors  rising  from  unknown  depths  penetrate  the  rocks  along 
planes  of  fracture  and  shrinkage  cracks,  decomposing  and  softening  the 
rock  until  the  pressure  of  the  steam  and  water  is  sufficient  to  force  an 
opening  to  the  surface.  If  this  opening  affords  an  easier  exit  for  waters 
issuing  at  a  higher  level,  the  fissure  is  probably  opened  with  a  violent 
ejection  of  mud  and  debris;  more  often  the  process  is  a  gradual  one, 
accompanying  the  slow  eating  away  of  the  rock  walls  along  the  fissure. 
The  flowing  waters  slowly  clear  out  the  fissure,  forming  a  tube  that 
permits  the  freer  escape  of  hot  water  and  steam,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  waters  change  from  a  thick  mud  to  a  more  or  less  clear  fluid. 
The  spring,  at  first  a  simple  boiling  mudhole,  is  now  an  intermittently 
boiling  spring,  which  soon  develops  true  geyser  action.  If  the  open- 
ing of  the  fissure  afforded  a  new  outlet  for  the  waters  of  some  already 
existing  geyser,  these  changes  take  place  rapidly,  and  eruptions  begin 
as  soon  as  the  pipe  is  sufficiently  cleared  to  hold  enough  water.  The 
bare  rock  about  the  vent  or  fissure  is  soon  whitened  by  silica  deposited 
by  the  hot  waters.  This  sinter  may  form  a  mound  about  the  expanded 
tube  or  basin,  or,  if  the  vent  shall  be  small,  and  spray  is  frequently  ejected, 
it  builds  up  the  curious  geyser  cones  so  prominent  in  the  Yellowstone. 
In  certain  cases  the  building  up  of  these  deposits  may  partially  choke 
the  geyser's  throat  and  cause  a  diminution  of  the  geyser's  energy,  whose 
forces  seek  an  easier  outlet.  In  other  cases  the  eating  out  of  new  sub- 
terranean waterways  deprives  the  geyser  of  its  supply  of  heat,  and  the 
vent  becomes  either  tranquil  or  wholly  extinct,  while  the  pearly  gey- 
serite  forming  its  cone  disintegrates  and  crumbles  into  fine  shaly  debris, 
resembling  comminuted  oyster  shells.  Thus  there  is  a  slow  but  con- 
tinual change  in  progress  at  the  geyser  basins,  in  which  old  springs 
become  extinct  and  new  ones  come  into  being  and  activity. 

With  few  exceptions,  where  the  vents  are  very  new,  geysers  spout 
from  basins  or  from  cones  of  white  siliceous  sinter,  or  geyserite,  depos- 
ited about  the  vent  by  the  hot  waters.  Such  deposits  are  formed  very 
slowly,  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  a  year  being  an  average  rate  of  growth 
for  the  deposit  formed  by  evaporation  alone.  These  deposits  of  sinter 
are  therefore  an  index  to  the  age  of  the  geyser.  In  many  cases  these 
sinter  cones  are  very  odd,  fantastic  structures  of  great  beauty  while  wet 
by  the  geyser  spray,  but  becoming  white,  opaque,  and  chalk-like  upon 
'Irving.  Where  the  spattered  drops  fall  in  a  fine  spray  the  deposit  is 
pearly  and  the  surface  very  finely  spicular.  If  the  spray  be  coarse,  the 
rods  are  stouter  and  capped  by  pearly  heads  of  lustrous  brilliancy. 
Thus  the  cone  is  not  only  a  measure  of  a  geyser's  age  and  activity,  but 
it  tells,  in  a  way,  the  nature  of  the  eruption. 


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